This section contains key information to aid the action research process. First, we present three models or paradigms for action research. Second, we provide some examples from a range of educational research projects that have employed the model 2: Practical Action Research.

Examples of Model 3 are mostly social and community research and examples are not included here. Model 1 is not now widely used in action research and is included here for historical reference only.

Each example is described briefly with reference to the stages in a cycle of an action research project: Question => Plan => Act => Observe => Reflect =>
In actual fact, the difference between the models is the degree to which an outside researcher influences the action research project in terms of framing the research question and determining the direction the research will take. In Model 1 this influence is considerable, whereas in Model 3 practitioners work collaboratively to define their own problems and identify possible solutions.

Note also that the titles usually given to these models ("Technical", "Practical" and "Emancipatory") are somewhat obscure and do not really give a clear idea of how the model is practiced. We have employed these labels because they are in common usage among action researchers, but the accompanying descriptions give a clearer picture.

We anticipate that within this broad framework, instructors will devise their own models and methods of research, consistent with constraints imposed by their students, availability of support and teaching resources.

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Three Action Research Models

		Technical Action Research
		The practitioner, though a collaborator in the research, is not the main researcher. The main researcher identifies the action research problem and proposes an intervention. The practitioner is involved in the implementation of any interventions.

		Practical Action Research
		Here the researcher and the practitioner identify the research problem together and discuss underlying causes and possible interventions.

		Emancipatory Action Research
		Practitioners work together as a group and collectively identify problems and possible solutions. Solutions are as much political and consciousness raising as practical. There is a strong social element here as well, in that it is expected that participants will emerge with a new view or theory of society.

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